The Washington Monument

Hi Fellow Bloggers, 

The National Mall is the central attraction of site seeing in Washington DC, the capitol of the United States of America. The National Mall is a vast amount of rectangular land, extending from the Washington Monument to the U.S. Capitol Building.

The National Mall itself signifies the character and power of the United States, as it is located in the nations capital. Furthermore, the National Mall receives approximately 24 million visitors each year. In 1966, the National Mall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, therefore encompassing a lot of American heritage and history. The purpose of the national mall is to provide a monumental, symbolic and dignified setting for the government structures located in the area. The maintenance of the national mall with its public promenades and monuments is of utmost importance. It is evident, through the presence of the Nations government buildings and professionals, coupled with the Grand National monuments and emphasis on preservation of the pristine mall, that the United States considers this an important representation of their country’s identity.

In order to properly delineate the National Mall as a signifier of the American identity, it is necessary to focus on one of the monuments located in this expansive lawn complex. The monument chosen for this blog post is the Washington Monument.

The Washington Monument is located near the center of a cross formed by four of the United State’s most famous buildings; the U.S. Capitol, the Lincoln Memorial, the White House and the Jefferson Memorial. The spatiality and layout of these monuments signifies the stateliness of the United States in itself. By concentrating four monuments that identify history and characterize the country in such a small area as well as the calculated layout, the United States government succeeds in reproducing a sense of dominance and patriotism.

Specifically with the Washington Monument, there are two main elements that signify this monument as a key identifier of American heritage, history and grandeur.

The first is the actual size and appearance of the monument. It stands at 555 feet tall and is an obelisk shape. The height of this building is an element of grandeur in itself, as it signifies the outstanding status of the United States in which it is identified by around the world. A way in which the monument is sure to remain a signifier of the country’s power and prominence is the law that no other building in D.C. is allowed to be taller than the monument.

The second element is the fact that the Washington Monument commemorates George Washington. Remaining one of the country’s most admired and respected leaders, the monument reflects his contributions to the development of the United States. The designation of this monument as a representation of history connects the monument to the longer traditions of the Western World. George Washington had a vision of a great and powerful nation built on republican lines using federal power. He aimed to use the national government to preserve liberty, improve infrastructure, found a permanent capital, reduce regional tensions and promote a spirit of American nationalism. These goals are those that are resonated in much of the Western world. All the countries embody these characteristics, which are signified through the erection of this monument. Not only does this monument stand as a signifier of the strength of George Washington and the United States, it represents the principles of all countries in the Western world.

Thats all for now!

The Law of the Indies

Hey fellow bloggers! Today’s blog post assignment is focused on the development of a set of urban ordinances that the Spanish developed. These ordinances are the key to how they founded and built cities in colonizing the Americas.

To begin my investigation into these urban planning ordinances, I skip to the chapter on the Law of the Indies in the Gasparini reading. This section lists 148 “laws” in regards to the discovering, establishing and building of new cities.

When reading through all these laws, there are two main points that can be taken away from the urban settlement ordinances.

Firstly, the laws begin by providing territorial information about how one can conquer and discover an area. It delves into requirements such as no tolerance for encroaching on already settled areas as well as emphasis on those conquering, learning about the natives that are already living in the area. These are laws number from 1- 31.

Secondly, the next section talks specifically about city planning ordinances. There are many specifics that are involved in the city planning process. When attempting to summarize what can be learnt from these city planning ordinances, they can be group into 3 different steps. The first step is discovering of the area as a whole, the land must be fertile, low lying to protect from environmental measures, and a location is best if it has access to water. The second step is the selection of the specific city site, within the entire area. Specifics about the leader (or governor) who selects the site are outlined. This leader must establish a proper hierarchy within the new city site, and they are responsible for dishing out specific plots of land, called caballerias and peonias. Once these sites are assigned, the property owners are to begin building on and farming the land. The third step is the actual town layout ordinances. There are many requirements for this grid like plan they have come up with. Requirements include the town square being the starting point for the town and size and design of this are provided based on city population. Furthermore, the street layout requirements of 4 principal streets within the square and then 4 surrounding the square are provided. These laws are then followed by outlining ordinances for the commons.

When reading through these ordinances, it becomes quite clear that the Spanish had strict settlement ordinances in the discovery and development of new cities. What is actually learnt about the urban form is the actual prescribed method in which cities are erected, and furthermore the importance of abiding by these laws. By beginning with the requirements of how the discoverer must behave, it gives the reader a sense of control these laws had over the spread of the Spanish empire in the Americas. Furthermore, we learn that although in the laws it does not state these new cities must be in grid form, the formula in which the city begins with the town square coupled with the requirement of the 4 main intersecting streets, the grid pattern is embedded in these laws.

The Spanish quite clearly articulated exact specifics as to what these cities are to look like. They provide numerous detailed laws of how to find a new location, how to approach the indigenous population located there, how to select the site for a new city, where to begin the construction of such city, the hierarchy of people within the city, and finally how the land is divided up within the city.

In conclusion, I think it is important to note how sophisticated this system of laws is, for an Ancient empire to have developed. These laws are in such detail, that it would be hard to follow exactly, even in constructing cities today. This really helps reiterate the power in which the Spaniards had in controlling the spread of their empire across the Americas. The establishment of such a law system denotes a high level of sophistication and proper composition of cities throughout the Spanish empire.

That’s all for today Folks!

See ya

- Ali

Urban Spain

Hey Fellow Bloggers!

This weeks blog assignment encompasses a critical analysis of the Spanish cities, previously Granada which was transformed into Santa Fe de Granada.

The transition of the original Medieval Islamic controlled city Granada, to the newly founded Iberian city Santa Fe de Granada, demonstrates an influx of new concepts in regards to urban form. These new concepts transformed the structural design and organization, reproducing a new trend for newly founded Iberian cities.

For a proper critical analysis of these two examples of Spanish urbanization practices, the relationship between the old and new cities are to be delineated, the urban form in Santa Fe de Granada is to be analyzed and the significance of such urban form is analyzed.

Santa Fe Granada- Google Maps

The relationship between Granada and Santa Fe is rooted in the actual conquering of Granada by the Spanish Catholics, and the consequent transformation into Santa Fe de Granada. This was part of Reconquista era where Catholic kings aimed to re gain control of the Iberian peninsula, and succeeded. Santa Fe began as the encampment set up by the Catholic Kinds when the siege of Granada commenced. In 1481, the army camp transformed into a town of bricks and mortar in just 80 days, a remarkable speed for not only that time period, but still today.

There are many urban design practices found in Santa Fe that correspond with previous Ancient cities we have already studied. Two main urban design practices that I think are significant to mention is the grid plan imposed on Timgad and Santa Fe, as well as the actual conquering practice that took place in Mexico City and Santa Fe.  

The key elements of Timgad that are evident in Santa Fe is the grid style pattern of urban design, as well as the two main prescribed intersecting routes through the city. In Timgad, the grid system is complex and centered by the decumanus maximus and the cardo. The decumanus maximus is the main East- West oriented road common in Roman cities and the Cardo is the main North- South road. This same grid organization is found in Santa Fe. The layout of Santa Fe is also a grid plan, with similarly mimicked two main roads, intersecting at the center of the city.

ProProfs. “Timgad”. www.proprofs.com

Another similarity to Ancient cities we have previously studied is the conquering of Tenochtitlan and its transformation into modern day Mexico City. In 1519 Hernan Cortes learned about the problems within the Aztec Empire and was able to exploit them, conquering Tenochtitlan. It is evident that a similar conquering occurred, followed by a complete overhaul of the existing society in both Mexico City and Santa Fe.

One last similarity I think worth mentioning is the built up fortification around Santa Fe. This can be connected back to the Citadel at Tiyrns. This structure is built up on a hill, and also has the fortified walls, reiterating the need for defense.

The significant urban form that exists in Santa Fe is quite clearly the grid layout. The city has a protective wall and moat surrounding it providing defense against the Arabs, and reproduced supremacy over them. Furthermore, in Santa Fe they begin to use a different type of architectural vocabulary. There is a new element of the renaissance depicted, not as extreme as plateresque, but still evident. 

One more element of Santa Fe that is significant is the height of the main religious building . The church built on top of the mosc area of the city is significantly the highest point of the city. This helps reproduce power over the surrounding regions, as the city itself is raised, and the church (being a Catholic symbol) is even higher, therefore viewed from far expanses.

FotoCommunity. "Santa Fe Grenada Church." www.fotocommunity.es

Anyways, that is all for this week!

Tenochtitlan and its transformation into Mexico City

The capital city of the ancient Aztec Civilization, Tenochtitlan, is now otherwise known as the metropolis city, Mexico City. Cortes arrived at Tenochtitlan and it was deemed the largest, most populous city in Mesoamerica.

In order to adequately compare the two prominent cities, in the present and past, the size and scale of the cities are to be analyzed.

Figure 1: Mexico City
SamEvans87. "MLB: Expansion to Mexico City." http://mlbreports.com/2012/03/18/mlbinmexico/

Figure 2: Tenochtitlan
Sheppard Software. "Tenochtitlan." http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/Mexicoweb/factfile/Unique-facts-Mexico8.htm

       Evidently, Mexico City encompasses a much larger expanse than Tenochtitlan does, judging by the photos depicted above. When analyzing specific area and population facts, the following information is found. Tenochtitlan covered an area of about 12 square kilometers and had a population between 150,000 and 225,000 people. On the otherhand, present day Mexico City encompasses 1,485 square kilometers and has a population of 21.2 million people in the metropolitan area. This coins Mexico City as the largest metropolitan area in the western hemisphere. 

In terms of drawing connections between the two sizes of the cities, it is evident that the reasoning for the expansive growth and grandeur of Mexico City is rooted in the Ancient city that previously stood in its place. It is recorded that Tenochtitlan experienced a lot of growth between the founding in 1325 and 1521, and dominated surrounding city states. This is then when the Spanish arrived, at this time, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica.

Therefore although the actual population and area size of Tenochtitlan is minimal in comparison to Mexico City, it is important to look at these city sizes in context of the time period. Tenochtitlan was the largest city, of highest grandeur and strength, within the Aztec Empire at that time. The modern day Mexico City emulates similar characteristics in comparison to cities of this era. As previously mentioned Mexico City is the largest metropolitan city in the western hemisphere, the size and expanse of the city is one of a kind and the grandeur of the city resonates with many immediately surrounding areas, along with other metropolitan areas in the hemisphere. This relationship between size, success of obtaining dominance and grandeur is relevant between both cities, as the site of Tenochtitlan clearly provided a great basis for which Mexico City could emulate these characteristics in modern day. 

The significance of the undertaking of Tenochtitlan, is in direct connection with the grandeur of the Ancient city at that time. Hernan Cortes heard about the great city and its long standing rivalries against it. He was captivated by the beauty and size of the city, and convinced others to help his small army to conquer the city. The already developed and successful city that stood on this island on Lake Texcoco, Cortes believed (and was proved correct) would be a great place to develop their capital city. It makes theoretical and empirical sense to conquer and develop a previously large, prosperous, powerful city in a conquest. The significance of such an undertaking is Cortes ability to firstly actually conquer the site with a somewhat small army, and to then develop it into one of the largest standing metropolitan cities. 

Therefore it is evident that Cortes was smart in choosing the site of Tenochtitlan to conquer and develop into a large, metropolitan city, as it already encompassed those relevant characteristics to succeed in such a development. Furthermore, the significance of this undertaking is evident in the large success Cortes had in developing the largest metropolitan city in the Western hemisphere.

Thats all for now,

- Ali

Comparing Tula and Chichen Itza- is the correlation between sites true?

To begin my investigation into the relevancy of a Toltec occupation of Chichen Itza, I eagerly open up google maps. In order to draw comparisons and conclusions, Pyramid B at Tula and the Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza are to be investigated.

The first location reached through google maps, is Pyramid B at Tula. Tula de Allende is a town in Eastern Mexico and is best known for the Tula architectural site, and its Atlantean figures. The current Tula de Allende is built upon the Southern extension of the ancient city Tula, which is centred on a former monastery of the 16th century. The area was the capital of one of the major MesoAmerican civilizations occupied and founded by the Toltecs.
Initially when the site is located by google maps, it appears almost like a modern run down small town in Mexico. This is because the ceremonial ancient center of Tula is located outside the modern city.

Figure 1: https://maps.google.ca/maps?client=safari&q=Pyramid+B+tula&oe=UTF-8&ie=UTF-8&hl=en

In order to delineate the two architectural sites, it is important to outline the elements of Toltec architecture. This will allow for similarities and comparisons to be drawn, and further conclusions to be made on the entitling of Chichen Itza as a Toltec site.
Once the archaeological site of Tula was located, the investigation was able to begin.
Toltec architecture was heavily influenced by religion and war. Their temples had flat roofs, were built out of limestone and had the layout of square column halls. The theme of war is relevant in the murals on the walls of the site consisting of gruesome war scenes. Furthermore, the theme of religion is relevant in the many murals and representations of the god Tezcatlipoca. The architectural buildings, and in this case temples/ pyramids and stone sculptures were monumental, bestowing the ancient civilization with the element of grandeur.

Figure 2: https://maps.google.ca/maps?client=safari&q=Pyramid+B+tula&oe=UTF-8&ie=UTF-8&hl=en

Pyramid B is located at the North end of the site, and is part of the square like layout.

Figure 3: George and Eve DeLange, "Tula Toltec Archaeological Ruins", Nov 2011, Delange.Org. http://www.delange.org/Tula/Tula.htm

Pyramid B is formally known as Tlahuizcalpantcuhtli, or the temple of the morning star. Telamons of Tula stand atop of this pyramid (4.6 meter high statues) representing the Toltec gods. It is speculated that these sculptures acted as the columns for a roof the pyramid once had. Connecting back to the key features of Toltec society, it is evident that Pyramid B encompasses all of the above elements.

Figure 4: Backpackingdave.com, "Pyramid B at Tula", http://backpackingdave.com/photogallery_mexico2009.html

llustrated in this image is the grandeur of the pyramid, when comparing the size of the person standing on the staircase in the middle of the pyramid. The flat top theme of Toltec architecture is represented. The theme of war is represented in the statues atop this pyramid, dressed as military warriors. The size of these warrior statues, being 15 feet tall, also reiterates the monumental Toltec architectural style. 

Figure 5: George and Eve DeLange, "Telamons of Tula", Nov 2011, Delange.Org. http://www.delange.org/Tula/Tula.htm

At the foot of the stairs, the white colonnades represent a once shaded area in which priests used to navigate the site. This concept of protecting their religious figures, ties into the Toltec religious architectural elements.

Moving onto the Temple of Warriors at Chichen Itza, once located on google maps, it is evident that this temple encompasses Toltec architectural design.

Figure 6: Wikipedia. "Temple of the Warriors Chichen Itza". http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivo:Temple_of_the_warriors_chichen_itza.jpg

This temple clearly has the flat top alike that of Pyramid B in Tula. All the columns located within the Pyramid are representations of Toltec warriors, alike that of Tula. The main difference between this Pyramid and Pyramid B of Tula, is the serpent representations in the columns atop the pyramid.

Although there is one architectural difference between the two sites, it is evident that the layout of these pyramids with the central staircase, colonnades located at the base, the actual structures built of stones, specifically basalt and lime stone and military and religious type design within columns and artistic expressions are all from the same influence.

Through the investigation of these two sites, the similarities clearly overcome the one difference, that of the representation of serpent design at Chichen Itza. Therefore I am able to conclude, that yes, indeed the site of Chichen Itza is of Toltec design and dominance.


Thats all for now folks, see you next week
- Ali

The Grand and Beautiful Teotihuacan

To begin my experience through Teotihuacan, I enter the location in GoogleMaps. The map brings me to a bird’s eye view of the gigantic Teotihuacan site. The first impression I get from the site is the astonishing size, through research and readings the size is described, but seeing it first hand, I come to the realization of the grandeur of the development.

The site is rectangular in shape, surrounded by the roads Piramides and Tuxpan intersecting at a round about. The Avenue of the Dead, depicted on the map as Calzada de Los Muertos, runs directly horizontally through the center of the rectangular development.

  

The Avenue of the Dead gets its name from the pyramid like structures that run along either side of it, resembling tombs. The grandeur of the avenue itself is something to note. The avenue is 40 meters wide and 5 kilometers long. Not only is this a long road, it is extremely wide as well.

Figure 1: Historyphoto101.com. "Avenue of the Dead." http://www.historylink102.com/mesoamerican/teotihuacan-1-avenue-dead.htm

This reiterates the grandeur of the city in many different ways. One way is that they have created a prescribed route to access all the tombs, temples and pyramids, therefore reproducing the ruling civilizations power over everyone living within the development. People navigate their way through Teotihuacan via this one main road, controlling the way in which people conduct their everyday lives within the city. Furthermore, this main route prescribes the access points in which people can enter the plaza and pyramids of the Sun and Moon (on google maps shown as the Plaza/Piramide Del Sol and Plaza/ Piramide de la Luna). This use of the prescribed routes, along with the single staircases leading up both pyramids, demonstrates the Aztec power of controlling social activity and navigation through the city.

Although there are many hypotheses about the use of the street of the dead complex such as the inference of a dual leadership represented by east west symmetrical architecture of the street or the sacred, residential and administrative uses of the navigation way, there is no concrete proof of what the reasoning for this construction was. Therefore I am able to conclude that although there is no published proof of the use of this large walled street way, I am able to make conclusions that the grandeur, size and walled structure of the street systematized living within the Teotihuacan site.

Figure 2: Destination360.c0m. "Avenue of the Dead". http://www.destination360.com/north-america/mexico/mexico-city/avenue-of-the-dead

 The first stop along the Avenue of Dead I make is the Pyramid of the Sun. Approaching the Pyramid of the Sun, I am astounded at the grand size of the structure. Standing 738 meters across and 75 meters high, it is the third largest pyramid in the world. The pyramid appears to have 5 tiers, and a single grand stairway running up the middle of the pyramid. The construction of the pyramid is an estimated use of 3 million cubic tons of rubble. The ability for an ancient civilization to engineer such a large structure with lack of building tools demonstrates the ability to bring masses of people together for hands on construction work. Whether or not there was one or two ruling classes in the Aztec civilization, it is clear that there was a hierarchy of power in the area.

            This size and grandeur of the Pyramid of the Sun obviously reiterates power through the site. The ruling hierarchy, in this case the Aztecs, developed this large pyramid that is still to this day one of the largest in the world. Furthermore, this structure brings together the people, the earth and the divine through the echoing shape of the pyramid and the surrounding mountains located in the valley.  This is also evident in the natural building materials used for the pyramid blending with the earth, and the now grown over grass on the pyramid.

  

Figure 3: Humans are Free. "Pyramid of the Sun." http://humansarefree.com/2011/05/secret-tunnel-discovered-near-pyramid.html

         

Excavations of the Pyramid of the Sun revealed chambers that have seen numerous ancient fire and water rituals. This suggests that the Pyramid of the Sun may have been a place of emergence for which the humans came into the world. Although there is no factual proof that this was the function of the Pyramid of the Sun, it brings importance in connecting the Pyramids to the joining of people, the earth and the divine in the area. The Pyramids clearly played a key part in bringing people together for these ceremonies, connecting to the earth through fire/ water rituals and the divine in the sense that they are connecting with spirits through these rituals.

The second stop along the Avenue of the Dead is the Pyramid of the Moon, located at the Northern end of the Avenue. The Pyramid of the Moon is similar to the Pyramid of the Sun in the sense that there is one prescribed route into the Pyramid. This is evident in the slope in front of the staircase giving access to the Avenue of the Dead. This grand staircase was used to conduct ceremonies in honor of the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan (the goddess of water, fertility, the earth, and creation).

Figure 4: Travel-Notes.org. "Pyramid of the Moon." http://www.travel-notes.org/photos/moon_pyramid_tcan.html

The Pyramid of the Moon connects the people, the earth and the divine through the platform and sculpture dedicated to the Great Goddess. The clear use of this Pyramid to worship the goddess who represents water, fertility, the earth and creation, brings the historic population together. The grandeur of the pyramid and the spiritual ability to bring the people together, reiterates the wholesome cohesion of the Ancient Civilization.

One last point I noticed when touring the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon is the similarity between these two structures. This similarity brings a tied together feel for the Teotihuacan site. The similarities of the Pyramid structures along with the walled prescribed route of the Avenue of the Dead, all surrounded by Roads enclosing the entire site, brings a heavy sense of planned cohesion. The development of the site was clearly well planned with a thought out end product in mind.

The Architecture of Conquest

Hello again fellow bloggers,

This week our blog post is directed towards the investigation of the similarities and differences between 2 archaeological sites: The Roman Colonial centre of Thamugadi and The Wari Military Center Pikillacta.

Timgad:

The Roman Colonial centre of Thamugadi, presently known as Timgad is located on a high plateau north of the Aures mountains in North East Algeria. Trajan, the Roman emperor at the time, founded Timgad in AD 100. The colonial centre is quasi military in appearance and is surrounded by fertile lands. The main structures located on the site is the forum, library, theatre, and an extensive number of public baths.

Figure 1: Kleijen, Tore. Timgad: Roman Ruins. http://looklex.com/algeria/timgad.htm

Timgad illustrates Roman urban planning at its height, the square enclosure and orthogonal designed based on the cardo (main street, hub of economic life) and documanus maximus (secondary main street), with the forum located at the intersection of these two streets. The Timgad square enclosure is a complex grid form, with a total of 144 blocks, divided evenly into four parts. This is an example of the new type of Roman empire development, rather than the unplanned organic layout of the Roman Forum, this is a planned grid. This takes into account changes in elevation, proving the Roman's were innovative in their grand planning. This complex grid system and the permanence of this original design and plan, along with the mimicking of this layout system in present day, demonstrates the skill and innovation of the military engineers of the Roman civilization.

The location of this colony on Numidian soil coupled with its strong and prosperous status, represents power and order in built form. The grandeur of the Roman Empire was truly represented, on foreign soil.This Roman military camp modelled excellent town planning through the representation of civil and military architecture and reflects the important establishment of communication of ideas, technology and traditions of central Rome through the colonization of the area. One technological innovation worth mentioning is the water supply system they established. Stored rainwater and irrigated water was transported to the area. Furthermore, the extensive number of public lavatories they established were connected to this irrigation system. The bench like chairs, with a round hole to sit on, operated through the use of this rainwater. The system allowed for rainwater to run through the channel constructed below, flushing human waste away. This water and sewage system was spectacular. 

PIkillacta:

Pikillacta is an enormous Peruvian set of ruins, belonging to the Wari Empire. It is located in the Lucre Basin of Peru, at the east end of the Valley of Cuzco. The layout of Pikillacta is one of somewhat mystery. 

Located on the site is an enormous rectangle enclosure, with hundreds of separate rooms of differing size and ornamentation. The size and format of Pikillacta, still to this day continues to baffle minds of archaeologists. The size of this settlement was much larger than other of the time period as well as the grid pattern is almost a perfectly engineered rectangle. Pikillacta is known as a military outpost, and this grid system implies concepts of hierarchal order in the area. The military structure of protection and power is reproduced in the tight grid system development. The concept of order is forced upon people through the navigation of this development. The narrow lane ways, and complex layout of these lane ways implies that Wari military and empire would like to control movement. In this sense, by controlling people's navigation through the confusing complex, and the fact that Wari members are the only one's who know the layout well, the hierarchal order is reproduced.

Figure 2: Bauer, John. Snapshot in the Family Album. http://www.flickriver.com/photos/tags/tipon/interesting/

The order and power is also represented in the built form through the engineering of water supply to the area. The area, if it was a thriving city as it is believed to have been, would be in need of a water supply system. It is said that the Wari Empire established hydraulics for water, through use of canals, reservoirs, causeways, and aqueducts. The perplexing element of this is the elevation of 3,250 m above sea level in which the site stands. The innovation of the Wari empire in engineering such a system that would pump water up hill, demonstrates the order and innovation of the empire. 

Figure 3: Going to Machu Picchu Travel Agency. South Valley Circuit. http://goingtomachupicchu.com/tours/south-valley-circuit-en.html

Furthermore, the actual purpose of Pikillacta is unknown but there is much speculation in archaeologists today. McEwan believes the primary purpose was a device used by the Wari empire to control its subjects by controlling the location and context of Wari religious ceremonies. Connecting this theory back to their innovation of water hydraulics, represents the power of the Wari Empire in establishing a colony and religious center, in an area otherwise not fit for habitation during this time period.

The Roman colony of Timgad and Wari Empire colony of Pikillacta evidently demonstrate similarities and differences. One similarity is the size and scale of these two developments. Timgad is of lesser geographical size at 0.2 kilometers square, but the population is known to have been 15,000 people. Pikillacta on the other hand is of grandeur geographical size at  2 square kilometers, but the population is unknown. The ability for these expanding empires to overcome development issues such as water supply and far reaching geographical location and successfully establish large scaling colonies is the key element to their success in conceiving power and order in the built form. Another similarity, as previously described, are the complicated irrigation water and sewage systems in place. The ability for these ancient civilizations to establish hygienic flourishing colonies, further represents order and power of these empires through the built form, on foreign lands.

Thats all for now friends, See you next week!